Toxicological Footprint: Molecular and Biochemical Alterations in Freshwater Fish Exposed to Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products - A Review

     This article investigated the growing environmental threat posed by pharmaceuticals and personal care products in aquatic ecosystems, focusing on their impacts on freshwater fish. These contaminants, entering water bodies through wastewater effluents, agricultural runoff, and improper disposal, are detected at trace levels and exhibit persistence, affecting organisms across biological levels—from molecular changes to population dynamics. The continuous release of these compounds, including antibiotics and endocrine disruptors, compromises water quality, induces oxidative stress, alters antioxidant enzyme activities, and disrupts neurological, reproductive, and immune functions in fish. Molecular markers, such as gene expression and enzyme activity, reveal toxicity mechanisms, including metabolic and endocrine disruptions, while histopathological and behavioral changes indicate broader ecological risks. The article highlights the inefficiency of conventional wastewater treatments in removing these micropollutants, contributing to their accumulation in surface and groundwater. To mitigate these threats, the article advocates for advanced treatment technologies, stricter disposal regulations, and responsible consumer practices. A comprehensive understanding of these contaminants’ effects is deemed essential for protecting aquatic ecosystems and human health, given fish’s dietary significance.